La puesta en escena del Laques es sencilla: el diálogo tiene lugar en la palestra, donde se han reunido Melesias y Lisímaco, ciudadanos atenienses y padres de dos jóvenes adolescentes, con los generales Laques y Nicias, a fin de debatir sobre la conveniencia del entrenamiento con armas del que un tal Estesíleo ofrece una exhibición. A ellos se les une Sócrates. A partir de allí el diálogo deriva hacia el tratamiento de otras importantes cuestiones, como son el objeto de la (...) educación, las características que debe reunir el buen educador, la naturaleza unitaria de la virtud o la naturaleza de la valentía. Y también, la importancia de la indagación y debate en común. En este sentido, el Laques constituye una potente herramienta propedéutica de la que Platón se sirve, no tanto en vista a transmitir doctrinalmente su propio pensamiento, cuanto a caracterizar cómo entiende la filosofía y a despertar en el lector la reflexión sobre cuestiones filosóficamente pertinentes y la revisión crítica de sus propias opiniones. (shrink)

This article analyzes clerics who identified with the ethics of bravery. Bravery is an evaluative field based on the public display of courage and skill in the management of violence. In this sense, it was observed that among the Catholic clergy, a minority contingent, but heuristically representative, held typical actions of brave people, like the courage to kill another human being, or to use violence to solve everyday conflicts. The text is divided into three parts: the first, called "Catholic Church (...) and violence," says, from the Weberian sociology, the strained relations between religion and violence. In the second, "the courage and the clerics" looking conceptualize courage and demonstrate their applicability to members of the clergy from historical examples. Finally, the topic called "brave priests in Goiás" studies the cases of priests in the context of Goiás history, before 1930, which approached the bravery of ethics, taking on a personality that clashes with the socially expected behavior for this category. (shrink)

The crucial phase of speciation is argued to be the evolution of mating cross-incompatibility (prezygotic incompatibility) between the genotypes distinguishing the prospective species populations. Based on this idea, a single-locus model of speciation is presented, which is shown to be biologically plausible and may help to settle the controversy as to the biological significance of single-locus modes of speciation. The model involves three alleles, two of which characterize in homozygous state the prospective species populations and in heterozygous state their hybrids. (...) The third allele represents a mutant which is equivalent to one of the first two alleles with the exception that it inhibits mating with carriers of the third allele. This third allele is fixed in one population and immigrates into a second population which contains the mutant inhibiting matings with members of the former population. Migration in the reverse direction does not occur. Proceeding from a widely applicable concept of fitness and mating preference it is shown that postzygotic incompatibility (hybrid or heterozygote disadvantage) alone suffices to trigger evolutionary replacement of the extant mating relations in the population receiving immigrants by any arbitrary degree of prezygotic incompatibility. This corroborates Wallace's hypothesis and emphasizes the potential biological relevance of speciation by reinforcement (parapatric speciation) at single gene loci. (shrink)

A measure of association is introduced that is based on a conceptual rather than a model approach in order to ensure its broad applicability. The basis of the concept involves two variables or traits and of members of a population. The association of the -state with the -state is measured by the degree to which members of given -state share their -state. This formulation yields an index of association, which is applicable to all categories of traits, including discontinuous and continuous (...) traits as well as combinations of these. Complete association of one trait with the other is equivalent to the existence of a functional relationship of the second to the first trait. Therefore, the degree of association can be understood as the closeness of the relations between two variables to a non-specified functional relationship. This feature in connection with the asymmetry of the index attests its suitability for cause-effect analyses. In fact, the conceptual approach to the measurement of association yields a conclusive method of detection and description of functional relationships between variables together with a method for quantification of the strictness of these relationships. The legitimacy of the correlation coefficient and of disequilibrium indices as measures of association is briefly addressed. (shrink)

When applied to a family of sets, the term differentiation designates a measure of the totality of those members which appear in only one of the sets. This basic set theoretic concept involves the formation of intersections, unions, and complements of sets. However, populations as special kinds of sets may share types, but they do not share the carriers of these types; intersections of different populations are thus always empty. The resulting conceptual dilemma is resolved by considering the joint representation (...) of members of different populations that have the same type; populations then intersect with respect to joint representation of types. Two forms of representation reflect relative and absolute characteristics of differentiation by accounting for the distributions of types as relative frequencies within populations (as is commonly done) and as absolute frequencies (including effects of population sizes on differentiation), respectively. Corresponding classes of differentiation measures are developed, and existing measures are discussed in relation to these classes. In particular, the affinity of the measurement of distances between populations and the special case of differentiation of two-population families is examined in order to distinguish between the notions of distance and differentiation. (shrink)

Because of their elementary significance in almost all fields of science, measures of association between two variables or traits are abundant and multiform. One aspect of association that is of considerable interest, especially in population genetics and ecology, seems to be widely ignored. This aspect concerns association between complex traits that show variable and arbitrarily defined state differences. Among such traits are genetic characters controlled by many and potentially polyploid loci, species characteristics, and environmental variables, all of which may be (...) mutually and asymmetrically associated. A concept of directed association of one trait with another is developed here that relies solely on difference measures between the states of a trait. Associations are considered at three levels: between individual states of two variables, between an individual state of one variable and the totality of the other variable, and between two variables. Relations to known concepts of association are identified. In particular, measures at the latter two levels turn out to be interpretable as measures of differentiation. Examples are given for areas of application (search for functional relationships, distribution of variation over populations, genomic associations, spatiogenetic structure). (shrink)

The isolation principle rests on defining internal and external differentiation for each subset of at least two objects. Subsets with larger external than internal differentiation form isolated groups in the sense that they are internally cohesive and externally isolated. Objects that do not belong to any isolated group are termed solitary. The collection of all isolated groups and solitary objects forms a hierarchical (encaptic) structure. This ubiquitous characteristic of biological organization provides the motivation to identify universally applicable practical methods for (...) the detection of such structure, to distinguish primary types of structure, to quantify their distinctiveness, and to simplify interpretation of structural aspects. A method implementing the isolation principle (by generating all isolated groups and solitary objects) is proven to be specified by single-linkage clustering. Basically, the absence of structure can be stated if no isolated groups exist, the condition for which is provided. Structures that allow for classifications in the sense of complete partitioning into disjoint isolated groups are characterized, and measures of distinctiveness of classification are developed. Among other primary types of structure, chaining (complete nesting) and ties (isolated groups without internal structure) are considered in more detail. Some biological examples for the interpretation of structure resulting from application of the isolation principle are outlined. (shrink)

While evenness is understood to be maximal if all types (species, genotypes, alleles, etc.) are represented equally (via abundance, biomass, area, etc.), its opposite, maximal unevenness, either remains conceptually in the dark or is conceived as the type distribution that minimizes the applied evenness index. The latter approach, however, frequently leads to conceptual inconsistency due to the fact that the minimizing distribution is not specifiable or is monomorphic. The state of monomorphism, however, is indeterminate in terms of its evenness/unevenness characteristics. (...) Indeed, the semantic indeterminacy also shows up in the observation that monomorphism represents a state of pronounced discontinuity for the established evenness indices. This serious conceptual inconsistency is latent in the widely held idea that evenness is an independent component of diversity. As a consequence, the established evenness indices largely appear as indicators of relative polymorphism rather than as indicators of evenness. In order to arrive at consistent measures of evenness/unevenness, it seems indispensable to determine which states are of maximal unevenness and then to assess the position of a given type distribution between states of maximal evenness and maximal unevenness. Since semantically, unevenness implies inequality among type representations, its maximum is reached if all type representations are equally different. For given number of types, this situation is realized if type representations, when ranked in descending order, show equal differences between adjacent types. We term such distributions “stepladders” as opposed to “plateaus” for uniform distributions. Two approaches to new evenness measures are proposed that reflect different perspectives on the positioning of type distributions between the closest stepladders and the closest plateaus. Their two extremes indicate states of complete evenness and complete unevenness, and the midpoint is postulated to represent the turning point between prevailing evenness and prevailing unevenness. The measures are graphically illustrated by evenness surfaces plotted above frequency simplices for three types, and by transects through evenness surfaces for more types. The approach can be generalized to include variable differences between types (as required in analyses of functional evenness) by simply replacing types with pairs of different types. Pairs, as the new types, can be represented by their abundances, for example, and these can be modified in various ways by the differences between the two types that form the pair. Pair representations thus consist of both the difference between the paired types and their frequency. Omission of pair frequencies leads to conceptual ambiguity. Given this specification of pair representations, their evenness/unevenness can be evaluated using the same indices developed for simple types. Pair evenness then turns out to quantify dispersion evenness. (shrink)

On philosophical thoughts of Nikolaus Driyarkara, an Indonesian Jesuit educator and philosopher; collection of articles.

En este trabajo se estudia la versión del intelecto agente en cuatro pensadores poco conocidos del s. XIV: 1) Guillermo de Alnwick (Guillelmus de Alnwick). 2) Gregorio de Rimini (Gregorius Ariminensis). 3) Tomás de Bailly (Thomas de Bailly). 4) Pedro de Ailly (Petrus de Ailly).

El presente ensayo realiza una comparación dinámica entre los valores culturales, morales y religiosos del mundo de San Juan de Ávila y los actuales. Al hilo de esta comparación, se presentan las respuestas y tomas de postura del Maestro Ávila como puntos de partida heurísticos para que tanto los sacerdotes como los seglares de hoy afronten con valentía los retos de la fe. El artículo indica la necesidad de volver a las raíces de las preguntas primeras en un mundo en (...) el que la idea de Dios es cuestionable o permanece simplemente ausente. (shrink)

Propose une hypothèse originale sur les sources de la pensée de Bergson et sa portée profonde, sur le mouvement de son oeuvre et la méthode qui s'impose pour la lire, sur la place de sa philosophie dans l'histoire.

Será la guerra, justamente, el escenario propicio para el abuso de cadáveres con fines políticos, en el que confluyen dos elementos consustanciales al Mal. El primero apunta a la negación del Otro como ser humano y sujeto de derecho, lo cual habilita al agresor para proceder con crueldad sobre su víctima. El segundo remite a la gradual “espectacularización” del cadáver, cuyas imágenes develan el ensañamiento con el Otro. Del arte a las imágenes digitales, las escenografías del Mal se despliegan de (...) modo polisémico. El drama, por lo tanto, acontece en la puesta en escena del sufrimiento del otro, reside no solo en el rostro de dolor y el grito de muerte del derrotado -o en el placer, coraje o valentía de su verdugo-, sino también en un más allá, en el uso y abuso del cadáver enemigo para prolongar el daño y el dolor -directa o indirectamente- en el deudo y su comunidad. (shrink)

Die Beschäftigung mit der Hand des Theodoros Skutariotes wird durch das Fehlen eines von ihm subskribierten Exemplars erschwert. Über seine Tätigkeit als Patriarchatsbeamter, Metropolit von Kyzikos und Chronist hinaus ist Theodoros der Forschung jedoch als Handschriftensammler und -besitzer bekannt. Ausgangspunkt jeder Untersuchung zu seinem Schriftstil sind deshalb die Marginalien der Kodizes, die sich in seinem Besitz befanden. Durch seinen autographen, monokondylischen Besitzervermerk †σϰουταϱϊώτου λευίτου θεοδώϱου† konnten bisher sechs Kodizes seiner Bibliothek zugeordnet werden: 1. Marcianus gr. 450, 9./10. Jh., Photius, Bibliotheca. (...) 2. Parisinus gr. 1741, 10. Jh., Sammlung rhetorischer Traktate. 3. Oxoniensis Cromwell 19, 11. Jh. 2. H., Ioannes Chrysostomus, Homiliae 1–45 in Matthaeum. 4. Athous, Kutlumusiu 15 , 12. Jh., Gregorius Nazianzenus; Ioannes Chrysostomus. 5. Parisinus gr. 1234, 13. Jh. 2. H., Nicetas Choniates, Panoplia Dogmatica. 6. Vaticanus gr. 636, 13. Jh. 2. H., Euthymius Zigabenus, In s. Pauli epistulas. (shrink)

Razón, poesía, historia.--La cuestión del estoicismo español.--El querer.

The paper provides a reconstruction of the notion of material Apriori while exhibiting the anti-Kantian inspiration and factual grounding thereof. The attempt is made to show that a non-formal Apriori obtains because the sensuous has a normative character; further, that the difference between material and formal eidetic laws is rooted in the difference between sensuous contents, given in experience, and intellectual contents, originating in activities of judgement. The material Apriori is not independent of all experience, since it is grounded on (...) sensuous eidetic contents and thus depends on the latter’s givenness and characteristics. It is thanks precisely to this ,contingency‘ that it has an ontological significance. (shrink)

Este artículo se propone estudiar la representación de la imagen del negro soldado en La revolución es un sueño eterno de Andrés Rivera. En efecto, frente a la negación por la historia del aporte épico de los afrodescendientes en las luchas por la emancipación, Andrés Rivera rescata la figura del afrosoldado argentino que se ha destacado heroicamente en los frentes bélicos para la defensa de la patria. Así, este trabajo analiza esta visión revolucionaria de la negritud argentina en Andrés Rivera. (...) Tras estudio, las dos primeras partes han demostrado que los soldados afroargentinos han tenido una participación heroica tanto en las Invasiones Inglesas como en las campañas de Liberación de San Martín, por lo que Andrés Rivera propone una representación sin estereotipias de la imagen del negro, a través de los campos de batalla, con igual valentía y dignidad que bancos e indios, frente a una literatura acostumbrada a representar al negro en la subalternidad. Las dos últimas partes han revelado la imagen dignificante de la negritud argentina, a través del personaje de Segundo Reyes, un esclavo devenido capitán de ejército, y su relación de amistad y de armas con Juan José Castelli, el orador de la Revolución y Representante de la Primera Junta en el ejército del Alto Perú. Así, el trabajo ha mostrado, de manera general, que la imagen del negro ha sido honrada por Rivera mediante las armas, la sociabilidad y la relación de hermandad con el “amo” blanco. The negation of the Afro-descendant contribution has been one of the constants in the history of Argentina. The symbolic participation of slaves in the struggles of the country has been often ignored by white and Europeanist history which represents the black as a secondary subject, a representation in the subalternity which also characterized the literature. But with the rise of the historical novel at the end of the 20th century, a new vision of the role and the image of the Afro-descendant was born, where the latter acquired a fundamental place in the country. This is what Andres Rivera proposes in his novel entitled La revolución es un sueño eterno, that we have in this work through parts: a reminder of the participation of black slaves in the struggles for emancipation, the approach from the trenches, the character of the black captain Segundo Reyes and the relationship between negritude and aristocracy. The first part traces the heroic participation of blacks in various battles of the country: English invasions, the, my revolution, the liberation war under San Martin, and the border struggles. The second part highlights the representation of “afroslodier”. With this approach, Andres Rivera speaks of the blacks not as a Community formed of slaves and free who, with regard to the whites and the Indians, stood heroically in all the struggles for the liberation of Argentina. To consolidate this approach without stereotype, the author uses an afro-argentine soldier character, a fisherman’s slave who becomes a captain of the army. The third part of the work analyses this revolutionary approach missing in literary history. And to highlight the loyalty and bravery of black soldiers alongside white figures, the author used, like Artigas and Ansina, duo Segundo Reyes, black captain, and Juan José Castelli, representative of the Government in the army of Alto Peru. The infallible friendship between the two during and after the wars which we analyzed in the last part shows how negritude and aristocracy are united by a perfect symbiosis made of fraternity and equal dignity. (shrink)

Hegel is most famous for his view that conflicts between contrary positions are necessarily resolved. Whereas this optimism, inherent in modernity as such, has been challenged from Kierkegaard onward, many critics have misconstrued Hegel's own intentions. Focusing on the Science of Logic, this transformative reading of Hegel on the one hand exposes the immense force of Hegel's conception of tragedy, logic, nature, history, time, language, spirit, politics, and philosophy itself. Drawing out the implications of Hegel's insight into tragic conflicts, on (...) the other hand, De Boer brings into play a form of negativity that allows us to understand why the entanglement of complementary positions always tends to turn into their conflict, but not necessarily into its resolution. (shrink)

Si la virtus de la Antigüedad era la fuerza, la valentía y el coraje, y en la modernidad la diligencia, el trabajo, el mérito y el esfuerzo, actualmente se ha instalado la commoditas, una suerte de pseudovirtud nihilista que reivindica la ociosidad, el igualitarismo radical y el entretenimiento. La sociedad contemporánea posmoderna ha superado tanto la metafísica filosófica grecorromana como la teología cristiana, tanto el racionalismo y el empirismo ilustrado como el idealismo romántico decadentista y el positivismo materialista, y ha (...) entrado en una suerte de fin de la historia de nihilismo lúdico autocomplaciente y autosatisfecho. Concluimos que la commoditas está para quedarse y reconfigurará la naturaleza del ser humano en función de una nueva mentalidad que empalidece a la tradición hasta prácticamente anularla. (shrink)

Un verbe exprime en français l'un des secrets de notre être et l'une des clés de notre époque maniaco-dépressive : ce verbe, c'est revivre. Il a deux sens que tout paraît opposer. Revivre, c'est en effet renaître, retrouver le sentiment d'être vivant et relié à autrui. Mais c'est aussi se laisser rattraper par "un passé qui ne passe pas » et se replier sur soi-même. Chacun de nous fait cette double expérience, souvent sans le savoir. Il faut pourtant la penser, (...) l'affronter, résister à ce qui nous enferme, accéder à ce qui nous délivre. Inventaire de nos blessures et de nos ressources, diagnostic du moment présent, parcours dans les idées et les oeuvres, ces propos renouent avec les actes les plus intenses de notre vie. Un art de vivre, c'est-à-dire de revivre, qui pourrait bien être le seul possible aujourd'hui. (4e de couv.). (shrink)

From classic aesthetic theories to fresh aesthetic methods, this volume is an accessible introduction to the main topics in contemporary aesthetics: the media-technological challenges, transcultural aesthetics and aesthetic methodology.

De Muralt's ambition is to carry out such 'historical' inquiries in the form of a structural analysis of philosophy, which he regards as a rigorous philosophical discipline - that is, as a science.

In this paper I firstly examine the contents of Escur. Φ III 11, which includes a medical section, an anthology of texts both sacred and profane, and the epistolar exchange between Gregorius Acindynus and Eirene Choumnos. Secondly I go through Eirene’s intellectual background and the books transcribed under her patronage. Thirdly I explain the role played by this Escurialensis in Eirene’s library and in the anti-Palamite circles. Fourthly, basing on different kinds of arguments, I attribute the copying of ff. (...) 83r-156v to Matthew Blastares. (shrink)

En este trabajo se examinan las estrategias discursivas de la literatura de Cervantes y Gracián en torno a la formación del sí mismo y el estatuto del mundo en su sentido metafísico. Conceptos tales como «valor» y «corazón” debieran ser leídos desde una perspectiva ética que delimita esencialmente la constitución del ser humano y de su mundo. Estas estrategias muestran cómo se suelen abordar teóricamente los inicios de la Modernidad desde sus últimas consideraciones (propias del idealismo alemán) y cómo tal (...) vínculo debe ser reconsiderado. (shrink)

t. 1. Des erreurs et de la vérité.--Ode sur l'origine.--Stances sur l'origine.

The first book that presents key original texts from the modern German philosophical tradition to English-language students and scholars of German, with introductions, commentaries, and annotations that make them accessible.